Deliverables & Report
This deliverable describes the necessary structures in place for the management of the PHOENIX project, including the guidelines for internal communication and the decision making procedures. The project implementation plan aims at preventing any matters from emerging or at resolving them in a timely and appropriate manner.
The deliverable also addresses the risk management plans and includes definitions and details of the processes. This deliverable is a living document that will be revised, improved and updated, if necessary, for example during the General Assemblies or Executive Board meetings. Attainment of the objectives and explanation of deviations. This deliverable is linked to task 1.1 Project Coordination and Technical Management and task 1.2 Operational Coordination and Management, both led by VUB. No deviations are observed and the objectives of the deliverable are achieved.
Dissemination level: Sensitive
The Data Management Plan (DMP) is a document that describes a structured approach and methodology towards management of all data that is planned to be collected, analysed, or generated in the course of the PHOENIX project.
The aim of this deliverable is to ensure that all data available in PHOENIX is Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Re usable (FAIR), ensuring that data can be retrieved easily and effectively by all partners during and after the project. This DMP was prepared following the Data Management workshop organised by VUB in M2 for the Consortium of partners. This workshop ensured that guidelines on data management and open science are implements in a harmonised way by all the beneficiaries.
The DMP is considered a living document that will be updated and expanded in the context of the periodic report of the project in M36. Attainment of the objectives and explanation of deviations. This deliverable is linked to task 1.3 Data Management lead by VUB. No deviations are observed and the objectives of the deliverable are achieved.
Dissemination level: Sensitive
The target of this deliverable is to give the description of synthesis route and process parameters for the obtainment of core/shell structured NMC cathode powders. To optimize the morphological and compositional characteristics, three rounds of experiments have been conducted:
- individual synthesis of NMC90 core and NMC622 shell particles;
- synthesis of WO3-coated NMC90 particles;
- combined synthesis of NMC core/shell structures with and without WO3 layer.
SEM, EDX and XRD techniques have been employed to investigate the effect of heat treatment temperature and Li content and to study the structural relations within the core/shell particles. The electrochemical performance of as synthesized NMC core/shell structures with and without WO3 layer as cathode materials are evaluated using galvanostatic charge-discharge (GCD) in NEWARE battery tester by preparing CR2032 type half–coin cells.
The aim of this deliverable is to describe the synthesis methode and the electrochemical performance test of self-healing polymer for the rechargeable silicon (Si)/LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC, x+y+z=1) batteries.
The document is divided into 3 main sections:
- Section 1 provides the main development and motivation for the high performance and self-healing polymer electrolyte of Si/NMC batteries.
- Section 2 describes the synthesis route to obtain the monomer and corresponding characterization.
- Section 3 presents the electrochemical results of Si/NMC batteries with the developed self-healing polymer electrolyte.
Dissemination level: Sensitive
This deliverable focuses on the detection of degradation in lithium-ion cells using ultrasound. A sensor system with piezoelectric disks for an ultrasonic sensor mat was developed. Time-of-flight (ToF)measurements serve as a direct indicator of the state of health (SoH) and correlate with the degree of degradation. An indirect proportionality between ToF and SoH was demonstrated in a series of tests. By integrating these measurements, the work package aims to enhance battery health monitoring and optimize maintenance strategies.
This deliverable concludes the work carried out in task 6.1; it contains the requirements of the PHOENIX Battery Management System. This document ensures that:
- the sensor values can be accessed and that the self-healing set-points can be sent,
- BMS users can have access to the needed cell sensor data and develop the algorithms as required,
- the developed cells can easily be connected to the BMS.
The goal of this deliverable is to show how the developed BMS were tested and document the obtained results. The results of this deliverable ensure that the BMSs operate as expected and can be used by partners for subsequent work.
For this purpose, various tests are conducted: integration tests with partner electronic, data reading acquisition and comparison with reference equipment, self-healing triggering, etc. The obtained results are analysed. Based on the carried-out tests, the BMS are operational and can be used.
Communication and dissemination constitute the transversal outreach activities of the PHOENIX project. To maximise the uptake of scientific results generated by the project, different stakeholder groups are identified, and communication is tailored to fit each group in terms of channels, content and style. This document presents the Communication and Dissemination Plan and Strategy developed to promote the project, raise awareness on the research topic and increase the visibility of its outcomes. The document illustrates the dissemination goals, the overall dissemination approach and identifies the dissemination actions planned for the project duration; it is designed to be a practical framework for day-to-day communications activities, and it will be updated in accordance with the evolution of the project.
This document outlines the strategy for the exploitation of PHOENIX’s outcomes. It presents a clear roadmap aiming to maximize the project’s impact and commercial potential. The strategy encompasses key aspects, including a series of strategic activities and a structured methodology that will help to identify a detailed exploitation plan encompassing the project and the partners’ needs. The document outlines the main aspects that will be taken into consideration for the exploitation strategy, but the information is preliminary. It will be updated in accordance with the evolution and the needs of the project.
This document represents a comprehensive description of the project’s website structure, content, and digital identity elements. It will outline the architecture and layout of the web pages, detailing its various sections and functionalities and delve into the digital identity of the project.
Scientific Publications
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Conference proceedings
Optimization of electrochemical performance of NMC cathode via adjacent synthesis and test protocols
In this work, the cathode powders having Ni-rich Core/Mnrich Shell have been synthesized via a cost efficient and easy controlled process that is built on a two-step co-precipitation method by optimization of process parameters under steady performance tests.
11th International Conference on Nanomaterials and Advanced Energy Storage Systems (mESC-IS), Mugla&Akyaka, Turkey (July 2023) – Partner: DLR – ENW
We have successfully integrated a strand of optical fiber inside a lithium-ion pouch cell as optical sensor. Then, an optical frequency-domain reflectometer is connected to the sensing fiber for distributed temperature monitoring inside the battery.
OPTICA, laser applications to chemical, security and environmental analysis (July 2024) Partner: CSEM
The investigations of the present work are done in the frame of PHOENIX project (Horizon Europe under the grant agreement No. 101103702) aiming to develop initially highly sensitive thin-layered metal oxide-based sensors for hydrogen detection and for integration inside the battery cell.
Battery2030+ Annual Conference (May 2024) – Partner: DLR
In the EU-funded project PHOENIX (grant agreement No. 101103702), with the purpose of scavenge of the abovementioned gases, the aim is to design and develop various metal organic frameworks (MOFs) integrated separators to be integrated in LIBs to minimize significant volume changes and electrode degradation during long cycles.
Battery2030+ Annual Conference (May 2024) – Partner: DLR
The first results of the synthesis of a magnetically triggerable self-healing polymer developed within the Phoenix project are presented
Battery2030+ Annual Conference (May 2024) – Partner: ENW – FHG
8th International Symposium on Materials for Energy Stoarge and Conversion (mESC-IS), Boku (October 2024) – Partner: DLR
Oral presentation about an overview of the PHOENIX project, along with some initial results about self healing polymer.
8th International Symposium on Materials for Energy Stoarge and Conversion (mESC-IS), Boku (October 2024) – Partner: ENW – FHG
99th DKG Annual Meeting Ceramics 2024 (CERAMICS 2024), Germany (September 2024) – Partner: DLR
Analysis of the philosophical foundation of futures studies and its implications for prospective LCA
In recent years, the subfield of prospective life cycle assessment (LCA) has emerged and continues to develop. As a result, it is expected that prospective LCA will become a critical tool to support decision-making processes, among others in the context of the PHOENIX project. Yet, the discipline’s philosophical foundations have not yet been clearly established, neither has its boundaries to other future-related academic disciplines, potentially leading to unclear scope definitions. This work aims to contribute to the clarification of fundamental assumptions within and behind prospective LCA. To this end, fundamental texts on theories of foresight and future studies are analysed and compared to state-of-the-art scientific articles on prospective LCA and scenario analysis. A preliminary examination reveals Gaston Berger’s distinction between studying the near future, which demands immediate action with minimal room for error, and the far future, where a greater tolerance for risk exists as adjustments to undesired outcomes remain feasible. Forecasting, relevant to the near future and foresight, applicable to the far future, require distinct methods that can be used in tandem. The poster explores how the distinction between forecasting and foresight can aid prospective LCA in delineating decision contexts and sheds light on the ongoing debates about uncertainty in the field. The subsequent phase of this research aims to bridge the gap between foresight and forecasting in practical application, namely, how to contextualize the outcomes of prospective LCA for the distant future within present-day decision-making. The framework will be applied in the PHOENIX project, exploring the potential future environmental impacts of smart batteries.
SETAC Europe 26th LCA Symposium, Gothenburg (October 2024) – Partner: VUB
In the EU-funded project PHOENIX (grant agreement No. 101103702), with the purpose of scavenge of the abovementioned gases, the aim is to design and develop various metal organic frameworks (MOFs) integrated separators to be integrated in LIBs to minimize significant volume changes and electrode degradation during long cycles.
Battery Innovation Days, Spain (November 2024) – Partner: DLR
8th International Symposium on Materials for Energy Storage and Conversion (mESC -IS 2024), Baku (Azerbaijan), 07-10 October 2024 – Partner: DLR
This paper describes the development of a flat, flexible sensor system that can be placed within a battery module between lithium-ion battery cells to monitor the expansion of the battery cells. This enables not only the charging and discharging processes to be monitored during operation, but also the early detection of safety-critical conditions such as permanent cell expansion, which can lead to an explosion. The sensor film developed for this purpose, based on dielectric elastomer sensors (DES), was characterised electromechanically, and based on this, a direct conversion for measuring expansion was implemented in the electronics. The sensor film was clamped in a test setup together with a commercial battery cell and subjected to a slow charging and discharging cycle of the battery cell. The sensor data show that expansion can be measured very precisely during this charging cycle; even electrochemical processes inside the battery cell can be tracked using this method.
22. GMA/ITG-Fachtagung Sensoren und Messsysteme 2024 – Partner: FhG
Battery2030+ Annual Conference 202 , Münster, Germany, 06-07 May 2025 – Partner: DLR
Battery2030+ Annual Conference 202 , Münster, Germany, 06-07 May 2025 – Partner: DLR
International Meeting on Chemical Sensors (IMCS 2025), Freiburg (Germany), 22-26 June 2025 – Partner: DLR
Oxford Battery Modelling Symposium (OBMS), Oxford, UK, 15th and 16th April 2024 (Session 2024) – Partner: VUB
NMC (LiNi Mn Co O ) cathode materials with high Ni content remain the most successful formulas, delivering strong overall performance and excellent specific energy. However, the increased reactivity of Ni with surface oxygen during charge-discharge cycles and larger Li/Ni cationic mixing can lead to chemical and structural degradation, resulting in poor cycling performance, rapid capacity fading and short cycle life. The present work deals in the frame of EU-funded PHOENIX project with the development of core/shell structured NMC particles. This morphology provides surface stabilization of NMC90 core via Mn-rich (NMC 622) shell by keeping the energy storage capabilities at higher level and prevents cathode degradation. For its synthesis, an oxalate-assisted, two staged coprecipitation route and advanced in-situ Li-infiltration approach has been developed. Moreover, prior to application of Mn-rich shell, a thin WO layer has been brought onto the surface of the Ni-rich core particles to prevent interdiffusion between the core and shell. Relying on a relatively high I(003)/I(104) ratio (1.59 at NMC90 and 2.18 at NMC622), it is shown that the formation of R3m structure via in-situ Li-infiltration can be achieved for both compositions already at 850 °C. Further electrochemical studies and long cycling tests have been carried with half-cell LiBs using core/shell NMC cathodes with and without WO interlayer.
16th Pacific Rim Conference (PacRim16), Vancouver, BC (Canada), 04-09 May 2025 – Partner: DLR
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Papers in journals
This paper presents an optical fiber sensing technique for dynamic monitoring of temperature, strain, and acoustic vibrations. Based on amplified spontaneous Brillouin scattering, it achieves kHz-level interrogation rates using time-division fast Fourier transform on a down-converted Brillouin signal. Unlike classical Brillouin sensors, it enables pointwise monitoring through mutual interference between amplified spontaneous Brillouin scattering and a local optical oscillator. A microwave frequency divider scales down the ∼10 GHz beating frequency to ~100 MHz, allowing the use of low-frequency electronics. The method eliminates optical frequency scanning and avoids specialized fiber treatments. Sensitivity can be adjusted by modifying fiber length or Fourier transform windows. Experimental results demonstrate dynamic sensing at a 1 kHz refresh rate over 78 m, with a frequency uncertainty of 0.66 kHz, corresponding to 59 mK temperature and 1.6 με strain resolution. This cost-effective approach offers high adaptability for various applications.
IEEE Sensors Journal (March 2025) – Partner: CSEM
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have become the dominant energy storage technology due to their versatility and superior performance across diverse applications. Silicon (Si) stands out as a particularly promising high-capacity anode material for next-generation LIBs, offering a theoretical capacity nearly ten times greater than conventional graphite anodes. However, its practical implementation faces a critical challenge: the material undergoes a ~300% volume expansion during lithiation/delithiation, which causes severe mechanical stress, electrode pulverization, and rapid capacity decay. In addressing these limitations, advanced polymer binders serve as essential components for preserving the structural integrity of Si-based anodes. Notably, self-healing polymeric binders have emerged as a groundbreaking solution, capable of autonomously repairing cycle-induced damage and significantly enhancing electrode durability. The evaluation of self-healing performance is generally based on mechanical characterization methods while morphological observations by scanning electron microscopy provide direct evidence of crack closure; for electrochemically active materials, electrochemical techniques including GCD, EIS, and CV are employed to monitor recovery of functionality. In this study, a novel self-healing copolymer (PHX-23) was synthesized for Si anodes using a combination of octadecyl acrylate (ODA), methacrylic acid (MA), 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA), and polyethylene glycol methyl ether methacrylate (PEGMA). The copolymer was thoroughly characterized using NMR, FTIR, TGA, SEM, and EDX to confirm its chemical structure, thermal stability, and morphology. Electrochemical evaluation revealed that the PHX-23 binder markedly improves cycling stability, sustaining a reversible capacity of 427 mAh g−1 after 1000 cycles at 1C. During long-term cycling, the Coulombic efficiency of the PHX-23 polymer is 99.7%, and similar functional binders in the literature have shown similar results at lower C-rates. Comparative analysis with conventional binders (e.g., PVDF and CMC/SBR) demonstrated PHX-23’s exceptional performance, exhibiting higher capacity retention and improved rate capability. These results position PHX-23 as a transformative binder for silicon anodes in next-generation lithium-ion batteries.
Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2414 – Partner: ENW
The growing demand for higher-energy lithium-ion batteries, encompassing consumer electronics, stationary grid storage, and electric mobility to specialized sectors like aerospace, medical devices, and industrial robotics, requires cathode materials that offer higher capacity while remaining cost-effective. This trend has intensified the development of nickel-rich LiNi1−x−yMnxCoyO2 (NMC) systems. However, high-Ni NMCs such as LiNi0.9Mn0.05Co0.05O2 (NMC90) suffer from limited thermal and cycling stability. Core–shell architectures using LiNi0.6Mn0.2Co0.2O2 (NMC622) as a shell can partially alleviate these drawbacks, but structural degradation caused by interdiffusion between the core and shell persists as a major challenge. This study investigates whether a tungsten oxide interlayer can act as a protective barrier that suppresses interdiffusion, stabilizes the crystal structure, and improves long-term electrochemical performance. In this work, NMC cathode powders were synthesized via a one-pot oxalate co-precipitation route, followed by structural characterization using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and ion scattering spectroscopy (ISS). Electrochemical performance, including capacity retention, cycling stability, and internal resistance, was evaluated through galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD) testing and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The core–shell configuration delivered higher specific discharge capacity compared to the individually synthesized core-only and shell-only reference materials, and the incorporation of a tungsten oxide interlayer resulted in a twofold increase in cycle life. These results demonstrate that tungsten oxide effectively enhances cycling stability by inhibiting core–shell interdiffusion, offering a promising pathway toward more durable high-Ni NMC cathodes.
Batteries 2026, 12(3), 82 – Partner: DLR
As the automotive industry undergoes a major shift to electric propulsion, reliable assessment of battery health and potential safety issues is critical. This review covers advances in sensor technology, from mechanical and gas sensors to ultrasonic imaging techniques that provide insight into the complex structures and dynamics of lithium-ion batteries. In addition, we explore the integration of physics-guided machine learning methods with multi-sensor systems to improve the accuracy of battery modeling and monitoring. Challenges and opportunities in prototyping and scaling these multi-sensor systems are discussed, highlighting both current limitations and future potential. The purpose of this study is to provide a comprehensive overview of the current status, challenges, and future directions of combining sensors with physically guided methods for future vehicle battery management systems.
Communications Engineering volume 4, Article number: 44 (2025) – Partner: VUB
Press releases
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